lopinavir / ritonavir
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) is a combination medication that's used as part of an antiretroviral (ARV) regimen to treat human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections. This medication comes in two different formulations (oral solution and tablets), both of which are taken by mouth. The dosage for Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) depends on your age, the other medications that you're taking (including other medications for HIV), and your other health conditions. Some common side effects include diarrhea and nausea.
What is Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)?
What is Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) used for?
Treatment of HIV infection (used with other antiretroviral medications)
How Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) works
Kaletra is a combination of two medications: lopinavir and ritonavir. They're both protease inhibitors. They block a protein called protease from processing viral proteins that allow HIV to infect healthy cells. By blocking protease from working, Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) prevents HIV from making copies of itself and spreading.
At low doses, such as in Kaletra, ritonavir helps slow the breakdown of lopinavir in the body. This "boosts" the levels of lopinavir in the body, which helps it work better and longer to fight the infection.
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What are the side effects of Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)?
Common Side Effects
- Diarrhea (20%)
- Respiratory tract infection (8-14%)
- Nausea (10%)
- Feeling weak (8%)
- High cholesterol levels (7%)
- Vomiting (7%)
- Belly pain (6%)
- Muscle, joint, or back pain (6%)
- Headache or migraine (6%)
- Changes in taste (21%)
- Vomiting (21%)
- Diarrhea (12%)
Other Side Effects
- Stomach flu
- Indigestion
- Acid reflux
- Gassy
- Constipation
- Hemorrhoids
- Nerve pain (tingling or prickling in arms or legs)
- Dizziness
- Anxiety
- Night sweats
- Trouble sleeping
- Skin infection
- Changes in weight
- Changes in appetite
- High blood pressure
- Erectile dysfunction (in males)
- Irregular periods (in females)
Serious Side Effects
- Severe allergic reactions: facial swelling, hives, rash, itchy skin, blistering or peeling of skin, body aches, trouble breathing
- Serious liver problems: nausea, vomiting, not feeling hungry, pain in the right side of the stomach, yellowing of the whites of the eyes or skin, dark-colored urine, light-colored stool
- Abnormal heart rhythm: chest pounding, trouble breathing, chest pain, feeling faint or lightheaded
Source: DailyMed
The following side effects have also been reported
Along with its needed effects, a medicine may cause some unwanted effects. Although not all of these side effects may occur, if they do occur they may need medical attention.
Check with your doctor immediately if any of the following side effects occur:
Less common
blurred vision
chills
darkened urine
fast heartbeat
flushed, dry skin
fruit-like breath odor
increased hunger
increased thirst
increased urination
indigestion
loss of appetite
loss of consciousness
pains in the stomach, side, or abdomen, possibly moving to the back
sweating
troubled breathing
unexplained weight loss
vomiting
yellow eyes or skin
Incidence not known
Blistering, peeling, or loosening of the skin
chest pain or discomfort
joint or muscle pain
lightheadedness, dizziness, or fainting
red skin lesions, often with a purple center
red, irritated eyes
slow or irregular heartbeat
sores, ulcers, or white spots in the mouth or on the lips
unusual tiredness or weakness
Get emergency help immediately if any of the following symptoms of overdose occur:
Symptoms of overdose
Agitation
confusion
cool, sweaty skin
decreased appetite
decreased awareness or responsiveness
decreased urine output
fast, irregular, or pounding heartbeat
fast, shallow breathing
general feeling of discomfort
headache
hostility
irritability
muscle pain or cramping
muscle twitching
pounding, slow heartbeat
rapid weight gain
seizures
severe sleepiness
stomach discomfort
swelling of the face, ankles, or hands
swelling of the feet or lower legs
unusual drowsiness, dullness, tiredness, weakness, or feeling of sluggishness
Some side effects may occur that usually do not need medical attention. These side effects may go away during treatment as your body adjusts to the medicine. Also, your health care professional may be able to tell you about ways to prevent or reduce some of these side effects. Check with your health care professional if any of the following side effects continue or are bothersome or if you have any questions about them:
Less common
Abnormal stools
belching
lack or loss of strength
skin rash
trouble with sleeping
Incidence not known
Redistribution of body fat
Other side effects not listed may also occur in some patients. If you notice any other effects, check with your healthcare professional.
Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to the FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.
Pros and cons of Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)
Pros
Can use in young children aged 2 weeks or older
Can take once or twice daily, depending on your medical history
Tablets can be taken with or without food
Available in a liquid form for people who have difficulty swallowing pills
Cons
Requires regular blood work and lab tests
Might need to take up to 4 tablets for one dose
Might raise blood sugar, body fat, and cholesterol levels
Interacts with a lot of medications (e.g., statins, heart rhythm medications, erectile dysfunction medications)
Pharmacist tips for Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)
Because Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) is taken along with other HIV medications, it can be hard to keep track of your medications. Follow your treatment plan exactly as instructed by your provider so that your HIV medications work as well as they can. Don't stop any HIV medications, including Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir), without speaking to your provider first. Doing so can cause the virus to become harder to treat.
Some tips to help keep track of your HIV medications include creating a medication list that has detailed directions and using an app on your phone to remind you when it's time to take your medications or order refills.
Get your routine blood tests done on time while you’re taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir). Lab work is important to make sure that the medication works against the virus and that it isn't causing unwanted effects.
If you take Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) once a day and you experience diarrhea, let your provider know. They might switch you to the twice-daily dosage to lower your risk of diarrhea.
Let your provider or pharmacist know what medications you're taking, including over-the-counter products and supplements. Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) can interact with many medications. These interactions can affect how well your medications work or raise your risk for side effects. Your providers will make sure your medications are safe for you.
Your blood sugar levels might go up while you're taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir). Talk to your provider to see whether you need additional medications to help control your sugar levels. If you have diabetes, it's important that you check your blood sugar while taking this medication and tell your provider if they're higher than usual.
Since Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) can raise your cholesterol levels, talk to your provider about whether you need to take additional medications for high cholesterol. It's important to manage your cholesterol levels because high cholesterol can raise your risk of a heart attack or stroke.
Tips for taking [Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) tablets:
You can take Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) with or without food.
Keep Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) tablets in the original container and close it tightly, especially if you live somewhere where the weather is humid. Take any tablets that you place outside of the original container (like in a weekly pillbox) within 2 weeks.
Tips for taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) oral solution:
Keep the Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) oral solution in its original container and in the refrigerator. If it's stored at room temperature, make sure to use this medication within 2 months, then throw the rest away.
Make sure to use the dosing cup that's provided to measure and take your dose. Don't use household spoons because they might not hive you the correct dose.
Take the Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) oral solution with food. This helps the medication work better to fight against HIV.
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) oral solution contains alcohol. It's not a good option if you're pregnant, if you use certain feeding tubes to take the medication, and if you can't drink alcohol.
Frequently asked questions about Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)
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What are the risks and warnings for Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)?
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) can cause some serious health issues. This risk may be even higher for certain groups. If this worries you, talk to your doctor or pharmacist about other options.
Interactions with other medications
Some medications can interfere with how well your body gets rid of Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) from your system. This can affect the amount of Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) in your body, how well it works, and the risk of side effects.
Taking certain medications can lower the amount of Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) in your body and make the HIV medication work less well. Examples of medications that you should avoid include the supplement St. John's wort and the tuberculosis medication rifampin (Rifadin) to help the HIV medication work the best it can.
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) can also affect how your body gets rid of other medications. This can raise the levels of these medications in the body and raise your risk for side effects. For example, taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) with alfuzosin (Uroxatral) can lead to dangerously low blood pressure. In addition, taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) with certain statins can raise your risk for serious muscle problems.
Because of the potential for serious interactions with Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) and various medications, tell your provider and pharmacist about all the medications you take or plan to take. They can make sure your medications are safe to take together.
Pancreas problems
Risk factors: High triglycerides (fats) levels in the blood | Advanced HIV | Previous case of pancreatitis
Though rare, few people who took Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) reported having an inflamed pancreas (pancreatitis). You're at risk for this pancreas problem if you have too much triglycerides (fats) in your blood, have advanced HIV, or have had pancreatitis before. Tell your provider if you experience symptoms of an inflamed pancreas, such as pain in the upper stomach, fever, nausea, and vomiting.
Liver problems
Risk factors: Hepatitis B or C | History of liver problems
Some people taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) have had liver problems, which were sometimes life-threatening. Liver problems can happen as early as 7 days after you've first started the medication, but it can also happen after several months of treatment. Your provider will order blood tests for you before and during treatment so they can make sure Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) is safe for your liver. Let your provider know if you experience signs and symptoms of liver damage, such as sleepiness, nausea, loss of appetite, light-colored stool, upper right stomach pain, yellowing of the skin or eyes, or dark urine.
Heart rhythm problems
Risk factors: History of heart problems | Taking medications that affect heart rhythm | Low potassium levels
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) can sometimes affect your heart rhythm, which can be serious and life-threatening. Your risk is higher if you have certain conditions, including electrolyte levels that are out of balance and heart rhythm problems. Your risk might also be higher if you're taking other medications that cause heart rhythm problems, such as digoxin (Lanoxin) and beta-blockers, among others. Get medical attention right away if you feel your chest pounding, have trouble breathing, have chest pain, or feel faint or lightheaded while you're taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir).
High blood sugar
Risk factor: Taking protease inhibitor medications
Some people taking protease inhibitor medications like Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) developed higher blood sugar levels, which has led to or worsened diabetes. In some cases, people needed to start taking a new medication or their current diabetes treatment plan needed changes to help keep blood sugar under control. If you have a history of diabetes, let your provider know before starting Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir). Your provider might ask you to check your blood sugar at home to make sure this medication is safe for you.
Overactive immune system
Taking combination ARV therapy, such as Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) with other HIV medications, can cause changes to your immune system called immune reconstitution syndrome. This condition happens when your immune system becomes overly active after you start combination therapy. Your immune system begins to fight off different infections that it was too weak to fight off before you started treatment. In rare cases, your immune response might improve so much with treatment that it starts to attack normal cells in your body (autoimmune). You can develop immune reconstitution syndrome at any time during treatment. Tell your healthcare provider right away if you start having any new symptoms, such as fever, pain, hair loss, bulging eyes, or sweating, after starting Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir).
Higher cholesterol levels
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) can raise the amount of cholesterol and triglycerides (fats) in your blood, which can put you at higher risk for a heart attack or stroke. Your provider will check your blood work before and during treatment to keep track of your levels. If your cholesterol levels are too high, your might need to take medications to help keep them under control. Keep in mind that you should avoid taking certain cholesterol medications, such as lovastatin and simvastatin (Zocor), with Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) because of the risk of serious muscle damage. Your provider will be sure to prescribe cholesterol medications that are safe to take with Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir).
Changes in body fat
Rarely, people taking HIV medications such as Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) have experienced changes in body fat. These changes include fat buildup in the back of the neck, in the breast, and around the middle of the body. Some people also lost fat from the legs, arms, and face. It's not clear whether Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) causes these changes to body fat, why this happens, and whether it will affect your health in the future. Let your provider know if these changes occur while you're taking Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir).
Risk of bleeding in people with a genetic bleeding problem called hemophilia
Risk factor: History of bleeding problems
Some people with a bleeding condition called hemophilia have had more bleeding after starting protease inhibitors like Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir). In about half of reported cases, people continued taking their protease inhibitor medication after the bleeding stopped. Let your provider know if you notice sudden bleeding or have bleeding that's difficult to stop.
Potential harm to premature newborns (oral solution only)
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) oral solution contains ethanol and propylene glycol, which are typically safe for children and adults. But premature newborns are at high risk for possibly life-threatening propylene glycol side effects because they can't process these ingredients well. For this reason, premature newborns shouldn't be given the oral solution in the days just following birth, unless the benefits outweigh the risks. Get medical help right away if your baby has trouble breathing, isn't feeding well, or is vomiting.
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) dosage forms
Typical dosing for Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)
Your dose can vary depending on your age, your health conditions, and your other medications (including other HIV medications). In general, Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) is taken by mouth either once daily or twice daily.
Adults
Once-daily dosing: The typical dose is 800 mg/200 mg (lopinavir/ritonavir) by mouth once daily.
Twice-daily dosing: The typical dose is 400 mg/100 mg (lopinavir/ritonavir) by mouth twice daily.
Children 2 weeks to 17 years of age
Your child's provider will determine their dose based on either their body weight or their body surface area (BSA). BSA is your child's body size calculated based on weight and height.
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) is typically taken by mouth twice daily. The maximum dose is 400 mg/100 mg (lopinavir/ritonavir) twice daily.
Interactions between Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) and other drugs
Using this medicine with any of the following medicines is not recommended. Your doctor may decide not to treat you with this medication or change some of the other medicines you take.
- Alfuzosin
- Alprazolam
- Amiodarone
- Apalutamide
- Astemizole
- Atorvastatin
- Bepridil
- Carbamazepine
- Cisapride
- Colchicine
- Conivaptan
- Crizotinib
- Dihydroergotamine
- Doxorubicin
- Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome
- Dronedarone
- Efavirenz
- Elbasvir
- Eletriptan
- Eliglustat
- Encainide
- Eplerenone
- Ergoloid Mesylates
- Ergonovine
- Ergotamine
- Ethinyl Estradiol
- Everolimus
- Flecainide
- Flibanserin
- Fluconazole
- Fosphenytoin
- Grazoprevir
- Isavuconazonium Sulfate
- Ivabradine
- Ketoconazole
- Lomitapide
- Lovastatin
- Lurasidone
- Maraviroc
- Mesoridazine
- Methylergonovine
- Methysergide
- Midazolam
- Naloxegol
- Nelfinavir
- Nimodipine
- Phenobarbital
- Phenytoin
- Pimozide
- Piperaquine
- Posaconazole
- Primidone
- Propafenone
- Quinidine
- Ranolazine
- Rifampin
- Riociguat
- Romidepsin
- Sildenafil
- Silodosin
- Simvastatin
- Sirolimus
- Sparfloxacin
- St John's Wort
- Tacrolimus
- Terfenadine
- Thioridazine
- Tolvaptan
- Triazolam
- Ubrogepant
- Venetoclax
- Voclosporin
- Voriconazole
- Ziprasidone
Using this medicine with any of the following medicines is usually not recommended, but may be required in some cases. If both medicines are prescribed together, your doctor may change the dose or how often you use one or both of the medicines.
- Abametapir
- Acalabrutinib
- Ado-Trastuzumab Emtansine
- Afatinib
- Alfentanil
- Alprazolam
- Amiodarone
- Amisulpride
- Amitriptyline
- Amlodipine
- Amoxapine
- Amphetamine
- Anagrelide
- Apixaban
- Apomorphine
- Aprepitant
- Aripiprazole
- Aripiprazole Lauroxil
- Arsenic Trioxide
- Artemether
- Asenapine
- Atorvastatin
- Atovaquone
- Avanafil
- Avapritinib
- Axitinib
- Azithromycin
- Bedaquiline
- Benzhydrocodone
- Benzphetamine
- Bepridil
- Berotralstat
- Betamethasone
- Betrixaban
- Boceprevir
- Bosentan
- Bosutinib
- Brexpiprazole
- Brigatinib
- Bromocriptine
- Budesonide
- Buprenorphine
- Bupropion
- Buserelin
- Cabazitaxel
- Cabotegravir
- Cabozantinib
- Calcifediol
- Carbamazepine
- Cariprazine
- Ceritinib
- Chloroquine
- Chlorpromazine
- Ciclesonide
- Cilostazol
- Ciprofloxacin
- Citalopram
- Clarithromycin
- Clofazimine
- Clomipramine
- Clozapine
- Cobicistat
- Cobimetinib
- Codeine
- Copanlisib
- Cyclophosphamide
- Cyclosporine
- Dabigatran Etexilate
- Dabrafenib
- Daclatasvir
- Darunavir
- Dasatinib
- Deferasirox
- Deflazacort
- Degarelix
- Delamanid
- Desipramine
- Deslorelin
- Desogestrel
- Deutetrabenazine
- Dexamethasone
- Dextroamphetamine
- Dienogest
- Digoxin
- Dihydrocodeine
- Docetaxel
- Dofetilide
- Dolasetron
- Domperidone
- Donepezil
- Doxorubicin
- Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome
- Droperidol
- Drospirenone
- Duvelisib
- Elagolix
- Elexacaftor
- Eluxadoline
- Encorafenib
- Entrectinib
- Enzalutamide
- Erlotinib
- Erythromycin
- Escitalopram
- Estradiol
- Eszopiclone
- Ethynodiol
- Etonogestrel
- Etravirine
- Everolimus
- Fedratinib
- Fentanyl
- Fingolimod
- Fluconazole
- Fluoxetine
- Fluticasone
- Formoterol
- Fosaprepitant
- Foscarnet
- Fosphenytoin
- Fostemsavir
- Fusidic Acid
- Garlic
- Gatifloxacin
- Gemifloxacin
- Gestodene
- Glasdegib
- Glecaprevir
- Gonadorelin
- Goserelin
- Granisetron
- Halofantrine
- Haloperidol
- Hemin
- Histrelin
- Hydrocodone
- Hydroxychloroquine
- Hydroxyzine
- Ibrutinib
- Ibutilide
- Idelalisib
- Ifosfamide
- Iloperidone
- Inotuzumab Ozogamicin
- Irinotecan
- Irinotecan Liposome
- Isavuconazonium Sulfate
- Istradefylline
- Ivacaftor
- Ivosidenib
- Ixabepilone
- Ketoconazole
- Lacosamide
- Lamotrigine
- Lapatinib
- Larotrectinib
- Lefamulin
- Lemborexant
- Lenvatinib
- Levofloxacin
- Levomilnacipran
- Levonorgestrel
- Lidocaine
- Lisdexamfetamine
- Lofexidine
- Lorlatinib
- Lumacaftor
- Lumateperone
- Lumefantrine
- Lurbinectedin
- Macimorelin
- Macitentan
- Manidipine
- Medroxyprogesterone
- Mefloquine
- Meperidine
- Mestranol
- Metformin
- Methadone
- Methamphetamine
- Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
- Methylprednisolone
- Metronidazole
- Midostaurin
- Mifepristone
- Mirtazapine
- Mometasone
- Morphine
- Morphine Sulfate Liposome
- Moxifloxacin
- Nafarelin
- Neratinib
- Nifedipine
- Nilotinib
- Nomegestrol
- Norelgestromin
- Norethindrone
- Norfloxacin
- Norgestimate
- Norgestrel
- Nortriptyline
- Octreotide
- Ofloxacin
- Olaparib
- Omeprazole
- Ondansetron
- Orlistat
- Osilodrostat
- Osimertinib
- Oxaliplatin
- Oxycodone
- Ozanimod
- Palbociclib
- Paliperidone
- Panobinostat
- Paritaprevir
- Pasireotide
- Pazopanib
- Pemigatinib
- Pentazocine
- Pexidartinib
- Phenobarbital
- Phenytoin
- Pibrentasvir
- Pimavanserin
- Piperaquine
- Pitolisant
- Pixantrone
- Ponatinib
- Ponesimod
- Posaconazole
- Pralsetinib
- Pravastatin
- Prednisone
- Procainamide
- Promethazine
- Propafenone
- Protriptyline
- Quetiapine
- Quinidine
- Quinine
- Reboxetine
- Regorafenib
- Relugolix
- Retapamulin
- Ribociclib
- Rifabutin
- Rifapentine
- Rimegepant
- Rivaroxaban
- Rosuvastatin
- Ruxolitinib
- Salmeterol
- Saquinavir
- Segesterone
- Selpercatinib
- Selumetinib
- Sertraline
- Sevoflurane
- Simeprevir
- Siponimod
- Sodium Phosphate
- Sodium Phosphate, Dibasic
- Sodium Phosphate, Monobasic
- Solifenacin
- Sonidegib
- Sorafenib
- Sotalol
- Sufentanil
- Sulpiride
- Sunitinib
- Suvorexant
- Tacrolimus
- Tadalafil
- Tamsulosin
- Tazemetostat
- Telaprevir
- Telavancin
- Telithromycin
- Temsirolimus
- Tetrabenazine
- Tezacaftor
- Thiotepa
- Ticagrelor
- Tipranavir
- Topotecan
- Toremifene
- Trabectedin
- Tramadol
- Trazodone
- Triamcinolone
- Triclabendazole
- Trifluoperazine
- Trimipramine
- Triptorelin
- Valbenazine
- Vandetanib
- Vardenafil
- Vemurafenib
- Venlafaxine
- Vilanterol
- Vilazodone
- Vinblastine
- Vincristine
- Vincristine Sulfate Liposome
- Vinflunine
- Vorapaxar
- Voriconazole
- Voxelotor
- Voxilaprevir
- Zanubrutinib
- Zolpidem
- Zuclopenthixol
Using this medicine with any of the following medicines may cause an increased risk of certain side effects, but using both drugs may be the best treatment for you. If both medicines are prescribed together, your doctor may change the dose or how often you use one or both of the medicines.
- Acenocoumarol
- Amitriptyline
- Amprenavir
- Aripiprazole Lauroxil
- Atazanavir
- Cerivastatin
- Clonazepam
- Dalfopristin
- Delavirdine
- Desipramine
- Didanosine
- Disopyramide
- Dutasteride
- Efavirenz
- Eltrombopag
- Fosamprenavir
- Gemfibrozil
- Imipramine
- Indinavir
- Itraconazole
- Lamotrigine
- Levothyroxine
- Meperidine
- Mexiletine
- Nefazodone
- Nelfinavir
- Nevirapine
- Olanzapine
- Paroxetine
- Prasugrel
- Quinupristin
- Risperidone
- Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate
- Theophylline
- Valproic Acid
- Warfarin
How much does Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) cost?
Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir) contraindications
Take with certain medications that are removed from the body by a specific liver protein (CYP3A4). Examples include alfuzosin (Uroxatral), Multaq (dronedarone), lovastatin, and simvastatin (Zocor).
What are alternatives to Kaletra (lopinavir / ritonavir)?
Treatment of HIV infection (used with other antiretroviral medications)
Treatment of HIV infection in adults and children weighing at least 88 pounds
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References
Best studies we foundAbbVie Inc. (2023). Kaletra- lopinavir and ritonavir tablet, film coated; lopinavir and ritonavir solution [package insert]. DailyMed.
ClinicalInfoHIV.gov. (n.d.). Boosting.
ClinicalInfoHIV.gov. (n.d.). Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS).
ClinicalInfoHIV.gov. (n.d.). Protease.
Clinical Info HIV.gov. (2023). Recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV transmission in the United States.
Dominguez, K. L., et al. (2018). Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV—United States, 2016. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Farzam, K., et al. (2023). QT prolonging drugs. StatPearls.
HIVInfo.NIH.gov. (2021). Drug resistance.
HIVInfo.NIH.gov. (2021). Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. (2017). Prevention of perinatal HIV transmission.
Thapa, S., et al. (2023). Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. StatPearls.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2023). Drug development and drug interactions | Table of substrates, inhibitors and inducers.
Zeldin, R. K., et al. (2004). Pharmacological and therapeutic properties of ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected patients. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy.
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