Forever Chemicals (PFAS): What They Are, Risks to Know About, and Tips to Lower Your Exposure

You may have heard about “forever chemicals,” likely in conjunction with potential health risks and their presence in our environment. But what exactly are they? 

The origin story of “forever chemicals” or PFAS dates back to the 1940s, with the DuPont family and their invention of the nonstick pan. The original pan used a substance called Teflon, a chemical that gave the pan its water- and oil-resistant properties. Since the invention of Teflon, more than 12,000 similar forever chemicals have been used. 

In June 2022, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a statement warning that even at low levels — low enough that they can’t even be detected — certain forever chemicals can be harmful. 

So how worried should you be? Here’s a breakdown of what you need to know.

What are forever chemicals?

The term forever chemicals refers to PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), which are a large group of human-made chemicals. These chemicals are all different and have wide-ranging applications, from being grease-, water-, and stain-resistant to protecting pipes from corrosion. Because of this, they’re in a large number of consumer and industrial products, as well as in drinking water.

Why are they called ‘forever chemicals’? 

PFAS have earned the name “forever chemicals” because of how long they take to break down. Their chemical bonds are so strong that they can take thousands of years to degrade in nature, and they can build up in the body indefinitely. So for all intents and purposes, they last forever. 

That said, scientists have been testing ways to destroy certain forever chemicals and remove them from drinking water. And while some of these methods show promise, researchers are still learning about their effectiveness and practical use. 

Where can you find forever chemicals?

In short, everywhere. Research points to decades’ worth of manufacturing with forever chemicals. At one point, the CDC reported that 97% of the U.S. population had forever chemicals in their blood. And while the use of forever chemicals declined significantly from around 1999 to 2018, it’s possible that we are exposed to new PFAS. Their widespread use can make it difficult to accurately monitor the level of exposure we face.  

Examples of where forever chemicals are found include: 

• Firefighter foam and places where the foam is commonly used (i.e. airports, military bases, firefighting training)

• Drinking water

• Soil

• Stain- or water-repellent clothing

• Shampoo

• Dental floss

• Makeup

• Fast food and baked goods wrappers

• Stain-resistant furniture and carpeting 

• Paint 

• Chemical facilities

• Certain manufacturing plants and products from those plants (electronics, paper, textiles)

• Some cookware and bakeware

• Fish and other wildlife

• Cleaning supplies 

• Dust

Read more like this

Explore these related articles, suggested for readers like you.

12 Potentially Toxic Ingredients to Avoid in Skin Care Products

Is Instant Coffee Bad for You? What to Consider Before Pouring Your Next Cup

What Are Ultra-Processed Foods, and Are They Bad for You?

Healthy Coffee: 7 Tips to Spruce Up Your Cup of Joe

View more

Are forever chemicals unsafe?

Possibly — but it likely depends on the level of exposure and types of PFAS, among other factors. 

Scientists are still learning about how forever chemicals affect people. While there is a strong body of evidence linking PFAS to a variety of health problems, a large portion of it comes from studies done in animals — and most of these exposed the animals to higher amounts of forever chemicals than the majority of the population. In other words, findings from animal studies may not apply to humans.

That said, there’s a lot we still don’t know about forever chemicals. Because they can collect in our bodies over time, long-term effects are unclear.

What health problems are linked to forever chemicals?

While a variety of negative health effects have been linked to forever chemicals, there is a likely association to the following six health conditions based on the available evidence.

1. Cancer 

There’s some evidence suggesting a link between PFAS exposure and kidney, prostate, and reproductive cancers in people who work in places with forever chemicals or live in areas where the water or soil are contaminated with them. Scientists are still studying what the cancer risk might be in the general population.

2. Altered immune system

In 2016, the National Toxicology Program issued a statement saying that two types of forever chemicals — PFOS and PFOA — are likely to be “an immune hazard to humans” and may lower immunity. This is based on research in humans and animals, but more so from animal studies. 

Some studies suggest that people in regions with PFAS contamination may have a higher likelihood of developing COVID-19. More research is needed to understand whether this seems to be the case at lower levels of exposure. 

3. Preeclampsia in pregnant people

A recent study suggests that low exposure to forever chemicals might also raise the risk of high blood pressure during pregnancy (preeclampsia). Scientists that conducted this study pointed out that most research looked at preeclampsia risk in pregnant people who were exposed to higher levels of PFAS. Although additional research in areas with less exposure is needed, it’s possible that it might not take high levels of forever chemicals to pose such risks.

4. Impaired fetal development

The relationship between PFAS exposure during pregnancy and growth and development in fetuses is likely a complicated one, with studies reporting varying findings around body weight, height, and growth. But a review of 18 studies in people suggests there is enough evidence connecting forever chemical exposure to slower growth in children.

5. Higher cholesterol levels

Studies on larger populations affected by forever chemical contamination found associations between PFAS and a higher risk of elevated cholesterol levels. 

Another study that looked at young adults in a Mediterranean region — where diet and lifestyle are different from Western eating patterns — also found a similar link between PFOA exposure and high cholesterol. In particular, researchers noted that lower levels of forever chemicals in the blood were linked to bigger increases in cholesterol. 

6. Liver damage

A collection of 111 studies (25 of which were done on humans) have linked PFAS exposure to liver problems. 

While more research in humans is needed, both types of studies showed similar findings: People and rats with higher levels of forever chemicals in the blood also appeared to have higher liver enzymes, which is a sign of liver damage.

Forever chemicals in drinking water

Drinking water is one of the most common sources of exposure to forever chemicals. While more than 200 million Americans across 50 states are likely affected by contaminated drinking water, communities hit hardest are often those near military bases, where foams with PFAS have fought jet-fuel fires for decades. 

In its 2022 report, the EPA lowered the acceptable drinking water concentrations for two major PFAS from 70 parts per trillion in 2016 to:

• 0.004 parts per trillion for PFOA

• 0.02 parts per trillion for PFOS

Keep in mind, these are interim guidelines — meaning, as the science evolves, these numbers can change. In fact, the EPA is proposing even lower contamination goals (more on this later).

Forever chemicals water contamination lawsuit 

Countless individuals in the U.S. and states have sued chemical manufacturers — including DuPont and firefighting foam manufacturer 3M — for contaminating water and soil with forever chemicals despite knowing the health risks. Consumer Reports estimates around 4,000 lawsuits have been filed, including people who link getting sick and deaths of loved ones to years of drinking contaminated water.

3M agreed to pay out $10.3 billion to settle this lawsuit, while DuPont and two other chemical companies agreed to pay almost $1.2 billion to help remove forever chemicals from the environment.

Can you lower your exposure to forever chemicals?

It’s hard to say. Because of how prevalent they are, it is difficult to know how effective certain measures are at curbing your exposure. But there are steps you can take to limit them as best as possible. Here are six tips:

• Look for PFAS-free products. The Green Science Policy Institute has put together a list of brands that are PFAS free. Avoid products that contain anything that says "fluoro" or "perfluoro."

• Use water filters. Using a water filter at home can help remove some PFAS from your tap. The EPA recommends reverse osmosis filters, which are 90% effective in removing many forever chemicals. 

• Avoid eating contaminated fish. The best way to do this is to find out where the fish came from. Contact your state or tribal fish advisory programs to determine which bodies of water have high PFAS. 

• Limit eating microwavable popcorn. Many popcorn bags are lined with PFASs, which can get into your blood while you’re eating the popcorn. Instead, look for a PFAS-free microwave popcorn brand, try pre-popped varieties, or consider popping your own corn at home.

• Eat freshly prepared food at home as much as possible. Research has found an association between people who eat more fast food or restaurant takeout and higher exposure to forever chemicals. And the opposite seemed to have a link as well: People who reported eating at home more had lower blood PFAS levels. 

• Contact your local water utility company. If a public water system services your home, you can ask them to test the drinking water and compare it to your state’s or the EPA’s standards for safe levels of PFAS. You can also reach out to your state’s environmental or health department to find out what steps they’re taking to address forever chemicals.  

Are forever chemicals being regulated?

Yes. State governments have been setting guidelines to help control PFAS. But in March 2023, the EPA proposed a national standard that would establish a maximum contamination level for six forever chemicals that are commonly found in drinking water. The EPA anticipates the rule will be finalized at the end of 2023, and that such a nationwide guideline could help prevent sickness and deaths tied to forever chemicals.   

Other measures to regulate forever chemicals include the following:

• As of February 2023, the Biden administration’s Bipartisan Infrastructure Law made $2 billion in funding available to address forever chemicals and newer contaminants in rural and disadvantaged communities across the country. 

• Earlier in 2023, the EPA proposed a regulation that prevents companies from using around 300 forever chemicals that have not been in use without a full review. 

• In 2021, Congress passed the bipartisan Keep Food Containers Safe from PFAS Act, which bans PFAS in food packaging. 

Why trust our experts?

Written by:

Kelsey Abkin

Kelsey Abkin has been working as a journalist since 2016. She has held many titles throughout her career, including editor, content strategist, digital strategist, and writer.

Edited by:

Samvida Patel, MNSP, INHC

Samvida Patel, MNSP, INHC, is a health editor at GoodRx. She is a nutritionist and integrative nutrition health coach with over 8 years of experience in health communications.

Reviewed by:

Sanjai Sinha, MD

Sanjai Sinha, MD, is a board-certified physician with over 20 years of experience. He specializes in internal medicine.

Our editorial standards

Meet our experts